Example of Art Rating Scale in Assessment for Observation of Children

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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6
Cess in Early on Babyhood Education

T HE Utilize OF TESTS AND ASSESSMENTS ¹ every bit instruments of education policy and exercise is growing. Throughout the school years, tests are used to make decisions near tracking, promotion or retentiveness, placement, and graduation. Many teachers utilize tests or assessments to place learning differences among students or to inform instructional planning. Widespread public business concern to raise education standards has led states increasingly to use large-scale achievement tests every bit instruments of accountability (National Inquiry Council, 1999a). Given their prevalence in the education system equally a whole, information technology is not entirely surprising that the use of tests

1

Although the terms are non mutually exclusive, the give-and-take "test" tends to exist used to refer to standardized instruments, formally administered, and designed to minimize all differences in the weather of testing presented to test takers. In that location are both individually administered and group-administered standardized tests. The group-administered multiple-choice format is what people oftentimes have in mind when the term is used. Assessments embrace a broad array of formats (observations, functioning measures, portfolios, essays). The term "assessment" is often used to communicate the intention to build a richer picture of the ways in which people call up, learn, and piece of work. They frequently are conducted over a longer period of fourth dimension than grouping tests permit. Standardized tests focus on individual differences, answering the question "How does this individual compare with all others in the reference population?" Assessments reflect the interest of modernistic cognitive theory in the processes of learning and knowing in a given private.

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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and assessments is increasingly common in preschool settings as well.

In the current early childhood didactics milieu, in that location are iv chief reasons for assessment (Shepard et al., 1998):

• Assessment to support learning,

• Assessment for identification of special needs,

• Cess for programme evaluation and monitoring trends, and

• Assessment for school accountability.

Cess to back up learning, the commencement and almost important of these purposes, refers to the apply of assessments to provide teachers with information that can serve as a basis for pedagogical and curriculum decisions. Information presented in earlier chapters— about early on learning, about the episodic grade of development in any given child and the enormous variability amidst young children in background and training for schoolhouse, about the axis of adult responsiveness to good for you cognitive and emotional development—leads to the decision that what preschool teachers do to promote learning needs to be based on what each child brings to the interaction. Assessment broadly conceived is a set of tools for finding this out. The second reason for assessing young children is to diagnose suspected mental, physical, or emotional difficulties that may crave special services. The last ii purposes tin can be combined nether the rubric of assessment to make policy decisions.

Each of these purposes represents an important opportunity for test or assessment information to inform judgment—if the tests or assessments are used carefully and well. No unmarried type of cess can serve all of these purposes; the intended purpose will decide what sort of assessment is virtually advisable. There is much to be learned from the experience in other educational settings nearly the uses, misuses, and unintended consequences of testing (e.g., Haertel, 1989; Gifford, 1993; National Research Council, 1982a; U.Southward. Congress Office of Engineering Assessment, 1992; Shepard, 1991). And at that place is much to remember nigh the developmental status of immature children, including the nascent state of their attention and cocky-regulation abilities, that makes as-

Suggested Commendation:"6 Cess in Early Childhood Education." National Inquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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sessment even more challenging than in other populations. The psychometric models on which testing has traditionally been based make standardized tests especially vulnerable to misinterpretation (Shepard et al., 1998).

Experts concur on a number of guiding principles that apply to any setting in which tests or assessments are used in determination processes (run across, for example, American Education Enquiry Clan, American Psychological Clan, National Council on Measurement in Education, Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing, 1999; Shepard et al., 1998; National Research Council, 1999a). Perhaps the virtually of import of these is that no single procedure should be the sole basis for decisions, or, put positively, important educational decisions should be grounded in multiple sources of information. These might include individual assessments of various sorts, standardized tests, observation, investigation of social and cultural background, and interviews. A corollary of this statement is that no exam score should exist looked on equally infallible or immutable.

A second signal of consensus is the requirement of measurement validity. Whether test or assessment, formal or informal, criterion- or norm-referenced, the measures existence used need to accept a reasonable level of accuracy. This means that school officials and teachers must inform themselves. They need to empathise the strengths and weaknesses of diverse assessment approaches for the purposes they have in mind. They need to know what the research says nigh the specific instruments they intend to use. They need to develop composure in the interpretation of the information gleaned from tests and assessments.

A third important principle is borrowed from the Hippocratic oath to outset do no harm. When test or assessment information is used for placement, school readiness, or other loftier-stakes decisions, information technology behooves educators to pay attention to the consequences and to make sure that they are educationally beneficial.

ISSUES IN STANDARDIZED Assessment OF Immature CHILDREN

Beyond these principles that utilize generally to educational testing and assessment, there are important considerations that

Suggested Citation:"six Assessment in Early on Childhood Education." National Research Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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become particularly salient in the assessment of young children. The development of views on the optimum conditions for assessment provides a adept example. The traditional psychometric concerns with standardization have in the past been applied to assessments of young children. Individual or grouping tests were administered under controlled circumstances in highly structured environments that were as similar to one another as possible. But dissatisfaction among many early babyhood professionals apropos the conventional model of norm-referenced cess has in recent years brought a shift in emphasis toward conducting assessments in settings that are comfortable, familiar, nonthreatening, and of interest to the kid (run across Meisels and Provence, 1989; Greenspan and Wieder, 1998). There is evidence that such settings amend enable young children to show what they know, what they can do, and what they are experiencing (Meisels, 1996b).

Many of the reasons that can be advanced to back up this arroyo to cess environments (amidst them the motivation to design assessments that accept greater ecological validity) could also pertain to cess of older children and adults. But there are also developmental and cultural characteristics of young children that can be attended to more finer in more flexible settings than is possible in nigh standardized testing environments (Bracken, 1987). Examiner-examinee rapport, for instance, is much trickier with very young children simply because of their very limited feel; race, gender, culture—fifty-fifty size—can significantly influence the child's ability to focus and nourish. The motivation, state of arousal, and disposition of the very young kid are probable to exist much more variable than is the case for older test takers, who have more adult cocky-regulation abilities. The very young are by definition less familiar with the whole notion of and materials used for assessment, so that creating a more flexible and responsive environment that promotes the physical and emotional comfort of the child is likely to produce a more accurate moving-picture show of the child'due south noesis, skills, achievement, or personality (Meisels, 1994).

Developmental Considerations

Immature children have, in varying degrees, developmental limitations on several important (and often unrecognized) dimensions

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early on Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Acquire: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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that can affect assessment. We have made reference above to the nascent state of the ability to focus and attend in children of the ages of concern in this written report. Likewise, the capacity to be purposeful and intentional, although undergoing rapid development, is certainly less than fully formed. In assessment situations, therefore, young children often have difficulty attending to verbal instructions, situational clues, or other instructions and stimuli. They may accept difficulty understanding the demand characteristics of the measurement situation, and they may non be able to control their behavior sufficiently to run into these demands (Gelman and Gallistel, 1978).

Apparently, there are also implications for assessment of the emergent state of young children's verbal abilities. Depending on the kid'southward functional capacity to utilize ideas and to communicate thoughts and feelings, for example, examiners may need to make inferences based on the child'southward overt motor behaviors or parent written report, rather than direct response. Observational modes of assessment and interviews lend themselves to this situation. And although tests or assessments that require examiners to arm-twist responses tin be useful, for example, to assess the child's grasp of cardinal concepts about written language, math, and scientific discipline, a different view is provided when the assessment casts the child as the initiator. Elicited language in particular may be qualitatively dissimilar from language that is used functionally in everyday contexts, and thus not representative of the kid's functioning.

Cultural Considerations

In an important sense, instruction tin be viewed as the journey from natal civilization to school culture to the culture of the larger society. Education inevitably involves cognitive socialization, that is, learning the repertoires of cerebral skills that are required for successful functioning in the dominant culture. A modern industrial society like the United states that is technologically advanced, equally Ogbu (1994) puts information technology, volition possess a repertoire of cognitive skills appropriate for advanced technological culture. Technological intelligence is advisable to and a prerequisite for functioning competently in that culture.

In a highly heterogeneous society such as ours, kid care centers and preschools are in a position to play an extremely impor-

Suggested Commendation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Research Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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tant role in helping youngsters become off to a practiced start on that journey. Simply that requires teachers to be sensitive to the influences of civilization both in choosing pedagogical strategies and in the use and interpretation of assessments. At that place are any number of obvious pitfalls that teachers are well aware of, for example, the use of English-language assessments that depend on verbal interactions with children who are growing up surrounded by a different home language. Simply valid assessment requires being enlightened of much more subtle factors likewise. For example, there are corking cultural variations in the ways in which adults and children communicate (National Enquiry Council, 1999b:96–101). Ethnographic enquiry has shown striking differences in how adults and children interact verbally. Many American Indian and African American subcultures do non cultivate the part of information giver that characterizes American middle-class children; the immature are expected to larn through quietly observing adults (Heath, 1983). In some communities, children are seldom straight conversational partners with adults; children eavesdrop on adults, while older children take on the task of direct teaching social and intellectual skills (Ward, 1971). Children from these cultural backgrounds are not nearly as probable to show their actual verbal power in cess situations based on the elicited response model every bit those for whom question and reply is a familiar ritual. Culture also plays a role in determining which cues are most salient to children (Rogoff, 1990).

Ane of the greatest dangers in assessing immature children is to associate developmental condition with the norms of the dominant eye-class culture. This volition lead to misunderstanding of children's functional abilities and misjudging pedagogical strategies. To describe again on Heath'due south ethnographic studies (1981, 1983), white, heart-class mothers begin questioning games from earliest infancy—"Where is Teddy Bear? Ah, at that place he is." Children exposed to these "known-answer" rituals are more likely than others to be comfortable with the question-and-reply dialogues typically encountered in preschool and school settings. Chapter 5 emphasized the importance of having a toolkit of teaching strategies, with each tool serving dissimilar ends and none existence most effective for all purposes. The same can be said of assessment.

Suggested Commendation:"6 Cess in Early Childhood Instruction." National Inquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Acquire: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: x.17226/9745.

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Sensitivity to the child's electric current competence means taking the kid's dwelling house civilization into business relationship in cess.

Assessing Children with Disabilities

One of the near difficult issues in early on childhood assessment has to exercise with children who appear to demand special assistance as a result of cerebral, emotional, visual, auditory, or motor impairments. On ane paw, research has demonstrated that early intervention can often reduce or prevent later problems in school (National Research Quango, 1998; Meisels and Margolis, 1988). But in that location is also a long and unhappy history with the unsophisticated use of IQ and accomplishment tests.

In a written report of several hundred psychologists who piece of work with young children, Bagnato and Neisworth (1994) constitute that only 4 percent of their respondents supported the employ of norm-referenced, standardized intelligence tests for immature children with developmental problems. Virtually respondents to their survey emphasized the importance of flexibility in the choice of assessment methods, the potential for modification of the instruments, and the demand for a multidimensional, squad-based assessment approach.

Potential problems with the use of norm-referenced tests are numerous. Some pertain to the technical adequacy of the instruments, and others derive from the way they are used (National Research Quango, 1982b; Fuchs et al., 1987; Barnett and MacMann, 1992; National Research Quango, 1997). In the outset category are inadequate or unknown psychometric properties, including the mutual absence of children with disabilities in the samples used to develop examination norms. Some children will require accommodations, but determining what accommodations are appropriate for whom and nether what circumstances is hard. The lack of knowledge about the functional characteristics of disability makes it difficult to determine whether or not the disability is related to the construct being measured, which in plough makes the interpretation of test results difficult. But even when tests are carefully developed, the test content may be inappropriate for sure subgroups of the population or biased against economically disadvantaged children. And finally, equally is truthful of whatever cess,

Suggested Citation:"6 Cess in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: ten.17226/9745.

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whether norm-referenced or non, the assessment may be irrelevant to the intervention process.

In addition to recognizing these challenges and issues, information technology is important to consider the assessment approach chosen in low-cal of the purpose ane has in mind. There are attributes of standardized, norm-referenced instruments that may brand them well suited to certain high-stakes decisions, such equally school accountability (although the issue of historic period appropriateness still obtains in preschool settings), just they should not exist the cornerstone of an assessment system for working with individual children to help them develop new intellectual capacities, in which careful ascertainment of the child in context is essential (Greenspan and Wieder, 1998). As Meltzer and Reid (1994) point out, standardized tests emphasize the stop product of learning, ignoring the processes and strategies children utilise for problem solving. They fail to distinguish between a kid'south electric current level of performance and his or her ability to larn and acquire new skills and information. And they tend to ignore the role of motivation, personality, social factors, and cultural bug. As a consequence, the utilise of norm-referenced instruments has often led to misclassification and incorrect special education placements.

Perhaps the most important thing to remember about assessment of immature children—whether the children are disabled, high run a risk, or developing typically—is that their development is episodic and uneven, with keen variability within and among children. Intelligence, notwithstanding 1 defines it, is non a stable construct in young children (e.grand., Cronbach, 1990; Anatasi, 1988). This is manifest in the lack of agreement across measures and in the unreliability of cess instruments. Standardized, norm-referenced tests are particularly vulnerable to misinterpretation considering they imply a degree of certainty that assessments of young children merely cannot provide.

All of these cautionary statements nearly developmental and cultural problems and the potential shortcomings and misuses of standardized tests exercise not alter the fact that cess is a key ingredient in the pedagogy and learning process. Cess, whether of the informal variety that nearly all teachers engage in on a spontaneous ground, or of a more formal kind, tin help to guide instruction and is an integral part of learning.

Suggested Citation:"six Cess in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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ASSESSMENT FOR PEDAGOGICAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING

Nosotros know from research that learning is a process of building new understandings on the foundation of existing understandings. Learning volition be virtually effective, therefore, when the child'south preconceptions are engaged. This has directly implications for instruction and for the development of curricula. Information technology is essential for teachers to ascertain the nature of thinking and the extent of learning for each child in club to make good decisions well-nigh what concepts, materials, and learning experiences will support the child's further growth. Perhaps the most pregnant modify to accept identify in early childhood cess in contempo years concerns the linking of assessment and instruction. In their report to the National Teaching Goals Panel, Shepard and colleagues (1998) put it succinctly: "Assessing and teaching are inseparable processes."

The thought backside the fusion of assessment and teaching is relatively simple and rests on 3 fundamental assumptions (Meisels and Atkins-Burnett, 2000). The first is that assessment is a dynamic enterprise that calls on information from multiple sources collected over numerous time points, reflecting a wide range of child experiences and caregiver interpretations. The second assumption is that the formal human activity of assessment is merely the beginning step in the procedure of acquiring data about the kid and the family. Through intervention—by putting into practice the ideas or hypotheses raised by the initial assessment procedures—more data volition exist caused that can serve the dual purpose of refining the assessment and enhancing the intervention. Tertiary, assessment is of limited value in the absence of instruction or intervention. The pregnant of an assessment is closely tied to its utility—to its contributions to decision making about do or intervention or its confirmation of a child'southward continuing progress.

Most all early babyhood educators rely on some class of informal monitoring of child learning in gild to design programs and program curricula—that is, in order to appoint in pedagogy. Nonetheless, relatively few early on childhood teachers systematically observe, record, evaluate, and document children's learning—al-

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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though the need for systematic documentation is speedily being imposed from many directions, including the new Caput Start child performance standards.

Teachers can learn to observe and certificate children's skills, knowledge, and accomplishments as they participate in classroom activities and routines, interact with peers, and work with educational materials. Curriculum-embedded forms of assessment, for instance, are contextualized methods that allow children opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge or skills through agile engagement in classroom activities. Teachers who practice curriculum-embedded assessment rely on checklists, portfolios, and other collections of children'southward work to certificate learning and to monitor instruction (Meisels, 1996a, 1987; Wiggins, 1998).

Assessment of Competencies in Young Children

Enquiry on cognition shows that immature children's knowledge is more complex than expected. We are a long way from existence able to integrate noesis of developing competence and assessment methodology and exercise. Now, a National Research Council Committee on the Foundations of Assessment, chaired by Robert Glaser and James Pellegrino, is attempting to rethink and enrich methods of assessment in low-cal of advances in the science of human cognition, evolution, and learning. The goals they concur out for a new scientific discipline of assessment are maximizing pupil competence, making students' reasoning processes more transparent, and creating a system where curriculum, instruction, and assessment are integrated in a mutually supportive fashion.

As learning scientists, measurement experts, and practitioners gradually create a new science and practice of assessment, in that location are several useful cess methods that can be used to help to dig below the surface of overt behavior to become at idea processes. Chapter 5 described the use of peculiarly designed tasks that tin can assist uncover a child's grasp of important concepts, for example, the thought of "quantity" that is cardinal to understanding mathematics or the thought of "representation" that underlies words and illustrations that is the foundation of literacy. Nosotros

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early on Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Larn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: ten.17226/9745.

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await below in detail at ii approaches to uncovering such information: clinical interview methods (Ginsburg, 1997), and dynamic assessment (Bodrova and Leong, 1996; Burns, 1996; Burns et al., 1992; Twenty-four hour period et al., 1997; Lidz and Pena, 1996), which often employs combinations of special tasks, observation, and clinical interviews. The discussion of assessing competence then moves on to performance assessment which, in contrast, focuses on physical, appreciable beliefs.

Clinical Interview

Piaget developed the "clinical interview" method, which is a nearly informative—and difficult—technique by which to appraise children's thinking. While the technique is nearly ordinarily used past trained therapists to appraise children with learning bug and other disabilities, the clinical interview also lends itself to use past the teacher when the knowledge she wants to gain most a child is not evident in his or her functioning.

The goal of the clinical interview is to identify the kid's underlying processes of thought. Its essence is its flexible, responsive, and open-ended nature. In the clinical interview, the interviewer asks the child to reflect on and articulate thinking processes. Although at the kickoff the interviewer has available several tasks probable to be appropriate for the topic at manus, initial questions are intentionally quite general, allowing the child'south response to influence the management and content of the interview. The interview is a highly theory-bound activity that employs nonspecific questions such equally "How did you do it?" "What did yous say to yourself?" and "How would you lot explain it to a friend?" so equally to encourage rich verbalization and to avoid biasing the response. As the interview evolves, tasks and questions are determined in part by the child's responses. Tasks are varied and modified, becoming more than specific in social club to focus on particular aspects of thinking, and more difficult in order to test the limits of understanding. In the clinical interview, the examiner'southward beliefs is to some degree contingent on the child's; in standardized testing, the child's behavior is ever contingent on the examiner'southward questions.

The clinical interview permits the interviewer to codify,

Suggested Citation:"six Assessment in Early Childhood Pedagogy." National Enquiry Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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test, and revise hypotheses about the child'due south thinking. The interview combines several methods: observation, test, experimentation, and "think aloud." The interviewer observes the kid's beliefs and listens to the kid's verbalizations; presents "test items"—problems of various sorts, often involving concrete objects; experiments with different questions or tasks to exam hypotheses; and asks the child to think aloud, to verbalize idea processes as explicitly as possible.

An interview is time-consuming and demanding, requiring 20 minutes to an hour of full-bodied effort. A good interviewer must have command of the relevant content being assessed and must exist familiar with typical thinking—that is, with normative behavior—at the child's level. Considering it is a highly interactive technique, the interviewer must be able to generate useful hypotheses concerning the child's thinking on the spot, must have the ability to devise methods for testing these hypotheses as the interview gain, and must be sensitive to the nuances of the kid's affect and motivation so as to establish rapport and motivation.

Many would agree that the interview method is powerful. Just tin can it be used effectively by ordinary teachers? Or more precisely, tin can teachers who put the effort into learning the method make practical employ of it in the hurly-burly of the everyday classroom? Several different approaches to adapting the interview method for classroom apply have been suggested.

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), for instance, has been advocating the apply of "accurate" assessment in classrooms, including the conduct of informal interviews. The NCTM journals frequently depict interview methods for teachers and give examples of their employ. An commodity past Jencks (1989) described a procedure for interviewing students every 5 to six weeks at the commencement of a new topic of study. Another study reported inquiry involving administration of x- to fifteen-infinitesimal interviews past a mathematics specialist, who was and then able to uncover difficulties hidden by correct responses on tests and to provide diagnostic data helpful to the instructor and the students' parents (Dionne and Fitzback-Labrecque, 1989). Others accept described how interview activities tin can be integrated into, and can indeed transform, classroom pedagogy (Ginsburg et al.,

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early on Childhood Pedagogy." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: x.17226/9745.

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1993; Moon and Schulman, 1995). The experience with classroom use of interview methods is limited and the opportunities for adequate teacher grooming fifty-fifty more than so. Notwithstanding there is much to recommend the approach to the research, practitioner, and professional evolution communities.

For one category of children, namely children with disabilities, the clinical interview is a critically of import approach to cess and will usually need to involve a trained therapist working with teachers. Virtually children with disabilities have problems in more than one area, which makes it very easy to make incorrect assumptions about the child's capabilities. Many children diagnosed with cognitive deficits, for instance, as well have problems with sensory processing and motor planning. Information technology is essential to understand the unique contour of a kid with special needs, to observe how that child interacts with family, teachers, and caregivers, in order to create the optimal intervention program tailored to the child'southward specific needs (Greenspan and Wieder, 1998:22–23).

Assessment in the Vygotskian Way

One essential aspect of assessment to support learning is to provide information apropos children'south ability to profit from didactics. The teacher is non interested in what the child knows or has mastered at any given point in time for its own sake, but as a clue to what concepts, knowledge, and opportunities can be provided in order to extend the child's emergent understandings. The goal is to understand a kid's zone of proximal development—that area where learning is inside reach simply takes the child but beyond his or her existing ability (encounter Chapters 2 and 5). From this perspective, the role of cess is to provide insight into the kind of educational experiences that will be most effective in helping particular children learn (Bodrova and Leong, 1996; Burns, 1996; Burns et al., 1992; Cronbach, 1990; Day et al., 1997; Ginsburg et al., 1999; Lidz and Pena, 1996)

In recent years, the concepts of two major theorists, Lev Vygotsky and Reuven Feuerstein, have stimulated and legitimated efforts to develop assessment techniques designed to promote children's learning potential. Vygotsky's theory describes

Suggested Citation:"six Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Larn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: ten.17226/9745.

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the human being equally goal directed, an active seeker of information. Children come to formal education with a range of prior skills, understandings, knowledge, beliefs, and concepts congenital on feel which help the kid navigate the surrounding world. These prior conceptions influence what the child notices nearly the environment and how they interpret it (National Research Council, 1999b, 1999c). The role of assessment, from this point of view, is to draw out and make explicit the child's prior conceptions or skills so that the instructor knows how and where to intervene to help the child advance. What the child is capable of at the present time becomes the pedagogical bridge to what a child can practice, given aid.

This pedagogical framework encourages the fusion of instruction and assessment. Consider the example of an assessment of children'due south equilibrium. Bodrova and Leong (1996) depict Teresa and Linda as they walk a residuum beam: "…neither Teresa nor Linda can walk across a remainder axle. Both of them stand up on the terminate and stare down the beam. The instructor holds out her hand to assist each girl'due south performance. Although each is given the same teacher back up, Teresa can only stand on the balance beam property the instructor's hand tightly while Linda walks across the beam easily. Independent performance is misleading in this example. When we encounter how the two girls respond to assistance, we can tell that they are at very different levels." If the question motivating assessment were "Can this child walk the rest beam?" (or, Can this child add and decrease?), then the test would have stopped with each kid'due south continuing immobilized at the finish of the rest beam and the simple answer for both would be "No." Only because the emphasis is on understanding each child's current level of performance (each child's zone of proximal development) as a guide for instruction, the more flexible and interactive cess provided teachers with important information about what each particular child would need.

Similarly, Feuerstein (1979), much of whose work centered around the assessment of disadvantaged children's mental abilities, proposed a organisation of "dynamic assessment," in which the examiner engages in assisted instruction as a method for measuring the child'southward learning potential. Dynamic cess techniques have also been designed to mensurate one or more than skills

Suggested Citation:"half dozen Cess in Early Childhood Teaching." National Enquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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accurately and meaningfully over time. Teachers can then use repeated measurement on those behaviors to (a) model growth, (b) draw student difficulties, and (c) place and plan programs for children who warrant intervention early in their lives. The disadvantage of this method is that the long-term indicators are only every bit proficient every bit the initial measurement—if an inaccurate measurement is used, the models developed will be inaccurate.

Dynamic Indicators of Bones Early on Literacy Skills (DIBELS; Good and Kaminski, 1996; Kaminski and Skilful, 1998) is an example of a dynamic indicator. DIBELS focuses on story retelling, flick description, picture naming, letter naming, letter of the alphabet sounds, rhyming fluency, blending fluency, phonemic segmentation fluency, and onset recognition fluency tasks—the behaviors thought to represent the "critical" prereading skills needed for entering and succeeding in outset grade. Of import progress toward the development of a arrangement to model growth, draw educatee difficulties, and identify and plan programs for children who warrant intervention early in their lives has been made; DIBELS's phonemic segmentation fluency measure demonstrates strong traditional reliability and validity and suggests promise in terms of its capacity to model student literacy growth. Additional research on DIBELS and other culling systems to monitor children's evolution is needed to define their relative strengths and weaknesses.

Performance Cess

Performance assessment takes a somewhat different approach to the assessment of competence. It is best understood in the context of learning almost children'south noesis, skills, and accomplishments through observing, recording, and evaluating their functioning or piece of work. Many feel that operation assessments lessen the likelihood of invidious comparisons between children, since each is evaluated according to how his or her specific levels of performance conform to the aims of the curriculum, rather than on how closely the operation conforms to the average performance of a normative group. In improver, they are not typically designed to sort and categorize children.

Some performance assessments can exist described as "authen-

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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tic cess" when they avert "on-need" tasks and focus instead on the assessment of physical, appreciable behaviors on real (or realistic) tasks that are function of children'southward ordinary classroom experiences. To the epistemological question "What is knowing?" functioning cess answers that the bear witness of knowing is in the doing (encounter Meisels et al., 1995a). Hence, authentic functioning assessments thrive on context and on the prove acquired from natural settings.

With this focus on the evidence of knowing as represented in concrete behaviors or products, competence is not assessed on the footing of a single operation. Functioning assessments require multiple sources of data and multiple observations of the aforementioned or related phenomena before conclusions tin exist drawn. They rely on all-encompassing sampling of behavior in order to derive meaningful conclusions about individual children. A variety of documentation methods (eastward.chiliad., a portfolio, a gear up of systematic checklists) tin can be brought into the assessment system. Over fourth dimension and in the context of numerous performances, teachers observe "the patterns of success and failure and the reasons backside them" (Wiggins, 1998:705). These patterns constitute the evidence on which the assessment is based.

A pregnant virtue of functioning assessments is that they permit children to demonstrate different approaches to functioning. Unlike children may accept highly comparable skills, but they may demonstrate these skills in very different ways. (Examples of performance assessment are presented in Box 6–one). Many besides believe that a classroom emphasis on easily-on performance can enhance children's motivation and offer a more informative fashion of engaging families in their children's intervention progress.

There are several characteristics common to performance assessment that make the technique particularly attractive to many who work in the early childhood field (see Calfee, 1992; Herman et al., 1992; Shepard, 1991; Wiggins, 1998). They can encourage systematic processes of:

• documenting children's daily activities to show their initiative and inventiveness,

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Babyhood Didactics." National Research Quango. 2001. Eager to Larn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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• providing an integrated means for evaluating the quality of children's performance and beliefs,

• reflecting on an individualized approach to pedagogy,

• evaluating those elements of learning and development that almost conventional assessments do non capture very well,

• utilizing the information caused in the teaching process to further elaborate the evaluative picture of the child that is emerging from the assessment, and

• shifting the teacher's attending and activity away from the typical content of test taking and onto the learning of the child and the environs in which didactics is taking place.

Traditional norm-referenced ability and achievement tests provide a summative statement about the exam taker. An of import point to be made about all 3 of the approaches to the assessment of competence discussed here, including performance cess, is that they are formative: they provide data that can be used both to change the process of intervention and to keep track of children's progress and accomplishments. Information virtually the kid and the setting that is gathered on a structured just continuing basis is so used to inform the intervention-instructional process. Considering the accent is on continuous assessment, they can be used to monitor a child's progress frequently, rather than summarizing that progress on annual or semiannual occasions. But performance assessments, like all of the assessments, will only be as strong every bit the theory on which they are based. Assessment involves theorizing—having informed ideas about the processes of learning and developing hypotheses about a kid's strengths and deficits on the basis of assessment information.

Instructional Assessment and Education

When pedagogy is divers as it has been in this volume—as an interactional construct that reflects a joint focus on the child'due south condition and the characteristics of the educational setting—two conditions are critical for the assessment of learning (see Meisels, 1999, for an elaboration of these ideas). Outset, at that place must be sus-

Suggested Commendation:"6 Cess in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Larn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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BOX 6–one Approaches to Performance Cess

Work Sampling Organisation

Widely used throughout the nation since 1991, the Work Sampling Organization (Meisels, 1987; Meisels et al., 1994) is a functioning assessment designed for children from preschool through grade 5. This arroyo relies on developmental guidelines and checklists, portfolios, and summary reports. It is based on using teachers' perceptions of their students in bodily classroom situations while simultaneously informing, expanding, and structuring those perceptions. Information technology involves students and parents in the learning and cess process, instead of relying on measures that are external to the community, classroom, and family context, and it makes possible a systematic documentation of what children are learning and how teachers are teaching.

The Work Sampling Organization draws attention to what the child brings to the learning situation and what the learning situation brings to the kid. As active constructors of cognition, children should be expected to analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and interpret facts and ideas. This approach to performance assessment allows teachers the opportunity to acquire virtually these processes by documenting children'southward interactions with materials, adults, and peers in the classroom surround and using this documentation to evaluate children's achievements and program future educational interventions. Evidence of the reliability and validity of the Piece of work Sampling Organisation with kindergarten children is available (Meisels et al., 1995b; Meisels et al., 1998).

Child Observation Record

Developed by High/Scope, this assessment provides a means of systematically observing children's activities in the ongoing con

tained opportunities for the interactions between teacher and child to occur, and, second, these interactions must occur over time, rather than on a single occasion. This view does not hold that one can round up all of the kindergarten children in a community on a given twenty-four hours and test them to determine what they know and can do. Rather, it suggests that learning can be assessed only over time and in context.

Several methods exist today that can provide the type of equally-

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early on Childhood Education." National Research Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: x.17226/9745.

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text of their classroom experiences, Including prolonged action and across fourth dimension periods (High/Scope Research Foundation, 1992). The focus of the observations is on "important developmental experiences that should happen in all developmentally appropriate early childhood programs" and on "existing strengths and weaknesses rather than skills that accept not yet emerged." Half dozen wide areas are assessed: initiative, social relations, creative representation, music and movement, language and literacy, and logic and mathematics. The system is comprehensive, providing behaviors to observe, a systematic way to collect anecdotal remarks, and a ways to draw conclusions about the children'south performance in club to plan instruction.

Project Construct

"Projection Construct is a process-oriented curriculum and assessment framework for working with children ages 3 through seven" (Missouri Section of Elementary and Secondary Education, 1992:3). It is based on constructivist theory and includes curriculum and cess guidelines organized into four interrelated domains: sociomoral, cognitive, representational, and physical development. The projection design provides a variety of resources for educators and parents, including curriculum materials, cess instruments, and preparation and professional evolution opportunities. The Project Construct Assessment System is an integrated set of evaluation tools aligned with the Project Construct curriculum goals for children. Two components make up the cess system—the Formative Assessment Program and the Inventory. Both parts utilize multiple sources of data that are primarily nerveless by teachers over extended periods of time.

sessment that occurs over time and in interaction. They incorporate not just a joint focus on the child's status and the characteristics of the kid'south educational setting, only they also encourage individual planning, programming, and evaluation. The Work Sampling System, designed for preschool-grade v (Meisels et al., 1994; Meisels, 1996b), is ane example of an cess organization designed to achieve these goals.

The three types of instructional assessment described to a higher place

Suggested Citation:"half dozen Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: x.17226/9745.

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are not adopted easily or without expense. They crave extensive professional evolution for teachers; changes in orientation regarding testing, grading, and student nomenclature by educational policy makers; and alteration in expectations past parents and the community. Such changes entail financial burdens, centralized coordination and program evaluation, and long-term commitment from teachers, parents, and the customs—all of which are potential obstacles to implementation.

The path to progress has been demarked in the most recent phone call to the field from the Goal i Technical Planning Group of the National Instruction Goals Console: "The Technical Planning Grouping, while understanding the complexity of the technical challenges associated with defining and assessing early evolution and learning…is convinced that new assessments are doomed to repeat by problems unless such efforts are permeated by a conceptual orientation that accommodates cultural and contextual variability in what is beingness measured and in how measurements are constructed. Within the broad parameters of standardization, then, flexibility and inventiveness must be brought to conduct on the content and the procedure of assessment" (Kagan et al., 1995:42).

ASSESSMENT FOR SELECTION AND DIAGNOSIS

Two important functions served by testing are selection and diagnosis. Selection or "readiness" assessments are intended to determine a child's preparedness to profit from a particular curriculum. Diagnostic testing is used to make up one's mind the type and extent of a special demand or disability. A third type of assessment, developmental screening, is a relatively brief testing instrument typically used to determine whether farther diagnostic testing is indicated. Each type of assessment is quite distinct from the others.

Developmental Screening

Developmental screening is a cursory procedure designed to place children at high risk for schoolhouse failure. These are norm-referenced standardized tests that typically evaluate a broad range of abilities, including intellectual, emotional, social, and

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Babyhood Pedagogy." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: x.17226/9745.

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motor abilities. Developmental screening is typically performed individually on large numbers of children, requiring very little time per child. At that place are several instruments that have been adult with attention to Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (APA, AERA, NCME, 1986) (AERA, APA, NCME 2000) and have high reliability and predictive validity (Meisels, 1987, 1988; Nuttall et al., 1999). When appropriate instruments are used, developmental screening is an extremely valuable source of data. They should be considered as the first stride in an evaluation and intervention process that can assist prevent the emergence of more than serious bug in children before they have had an opportunity to affect the course of development (Meisels and Atkins-Burnett, 1994).

Diagnostic Cess

Diagnostic assessment is intended to make up one's mind conclusively whether a child has special needs, ascertain the nature and character of the kid's issues, and advise the cause of the problems, if possible. According to federal police, diagnostic assessments administered by schools must be conducted in a team setting that utilizes multiple sources of data and is part of a system of special education services. Such an assessment provides the data that are used to create individualized family unit service plans (IFSPs) and individual educational plans (IEPs) (Bailey and Wolery, 1992).

In the past, the most mutual tools used for diagnostic purposes were intelligence tests, which focused primarily on the kid in isolation. Today, assessments are considered incomplete unless they view the child in relation to three domains. The outset is the child's biology. The 2nd is the child's interactive patterns with parents, teachers, siblings, and others. And the third is comprised of the patterns of the family, the culture, and the larger surround (Greenspan and Wieder, 1998; Greenspan, 1992). Unless the child is examined within these contexts, inferences well-nigh his or her developmental status will exist incomplete and generalizations nearly developmental trajectories may be seriously flawed.

Greenspan and Wieder (1998) posit six fundamental develop-

Suggested Citation:"half dozen Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Enquiry Council. 2001. Eager to Acquire: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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ment skills that lay the foundation for all learning and underlie all advanced thinking, problem solving, and coping (pp. 3–4):

1. The dual ability to accept an interest in the sights, sounds, and sensations of the earth and to calm oneself downwards.

2. The ability to appoint in relationships with other people.

3. The ability to engage in ii-way communications.

4. The ability to create complex gestures, to string together a series of actions into an elaborate and deliberate problem-solving sequence.

5. The ability to create ideas.

6. The ability to build bridges between ideas to make them reality-based and logical.

These "functional emotional skills" provide the theoretical framework for assessing the child's developmental progress over time and guide the course of interventions.

Greenspan draws heavily on the clinical interview procedures described before as a means of getting underneath the inability categories that then influence our expectations of children (autism, attending arrears disorder, mental retardation, pervasive developmental disorder) to the "functional emotional skills" of the private kid. He argues compellingly from his work with infants and immature children that the differences among children who carry the same label are greater than their similarities and that, with conscientious assessment, it is possible to tailor a treatment arroyo that helps the individual child climb the developmental ladder.

Whatever combination of assessments is used for the purposes of diagnosing disabilities and learning problems, it is important that any cognitive, behavioral, or sensory measures used meet high standards of validity and reliability. The very existent challenges of interpreting the operation of children with special needs on standardized instruments also means that information technology should be in the easily of trained professionals.

Readiness Testing

Readiness tests indicate a kid'due south relative preparedness to participate in a item classroom, rather than addressing general

Suggested Commendation:"half-dozen Cess in Early Childhood Teaching." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Larn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: x.17226/9745.

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developmental condition. The most commonly used readiness tests include items that assess children's perceptual skills (matching one shape from an assortment of other shapes), knowledge of alphabet messages, sensation of the use of prepositions (on, under, behind), colors, and sometimes receptive vocabulary. Annotation that the emphasis is very different from Greenspan'due south functional emotional skills listed to a higher place.

Early learning readiness measures are widely used—many would say misused—to determine whether children are fix for kindergarten. For case, many programs designed to prepare poor and immigrant children for kindergarten or first grade utilize readiness tests during the last year of preschool, typically at 5 years of age, to brand promotion recommendations.

Information technology is interesting to note that what readiness tests measure is not well aligned with what teachers think is important. Teachers' views of readiness were surveyed by the U.Due south. Department of Educational activity'due south Kindergarten Teacher Survey on Student Readiness (National Center for Education Statistics, 1999). Equally shown in Figure 6–1, over 75 percent of the teachers surveyed considered information technology very important or essential that children be physically good for you, rested, nourished, enthusiastic and curious in approaching new activities, and able to communicate needs, wants, and thoughts verbally in their chief language. In dissimilarity, 25 pct or fewer of the teachers considered the following items very important or essential: counts to 20, has good problem-solving skills, can use a pencil or paintbrush, and knows messages of the alphabet. In curt, teachers' opinions about readiness seem to reflect the importance of receptivity to learning, rather than the detail skills that a kid may or may not have caused before coming to schoolhouse.

While it is easy to endorse what the survey indicates that teachers think, it is likewise of import to recognize that these characteristics fall far short of what the cognitive and developmental enquiry shows that young children are capable of. This misalignment between current goals and future possibilities will eventually detect a mensurate of resolution every bit avant-garde learning principles are incorporated into learning and instruction in preschool and child care settings and every bit more and more than children have the reward of such instruction.

Suggested Citation:"6 Cess in Early Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Acquire: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: ten.17226/9745.

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Figure six–1 Percentage of public school kindergarten teachers indicating whether various factors for kindergarten readiness were very important or essential. SOURCE: National Center for Educational Statistics (1999).

In the meantime, schools and programs need to call back carefully virtually the use of readiness tests. Readiness is a very complex construct, including intellectual and social abilities, and its cess volition be affected profoundly by immature children's episodic and unstable growth patterns and by variations in how children live and are raised. Some children may do very poorly on readiness tests at the kickoff of school simply because they were not exposed to or taught the items that are on tests. Once enrolled in

Suggested Citation:"6 Cess in Early Babyhood Pedagogy." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Acquire: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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kindergarten, these same children may thrive. This is a item concern for children from minority and disadvantaged backgrounds. And since schools and programs differ, the fundamental requirement in every evaluation of a child's schoolhouse readiness should be that the assessment is grounded in direct relevance to the criterion, namely, functioning in that schoolhouse or program.

These considerations have led many to conclude that readiness tests are not suited for use in child placement and promotion decisions, although they may have value for purposes of instructional planning (Meisels, 1987, 1989a, 1989b; Stallman and Pearson, 1990).

Cess FOR POLICY DECISIONS

Tests and assessment results are increasingly used as a basis for of import policy decisions in instruction. Large-calibration testing programs generate information that inform about which schools or programs should exist funded, which should be closed, who should be rewarded, what types of programs should exist developed, and who should be informed that comeback is required if farther assistance is to exist forthcoming. Public reporting of assessment data past commune or by school has get commonplace, as has the employ of these data for rewards and potential sanctions. These types of decisions are known as high-stakes decisions (see Madaus, 1988; National Enquiry Quango, 1997).

Loftier-stakes testing also refers to the apply of assessment data to make decisions about private students or teachers. The use of readiness tests to make decisions most enrolling a child in kindergarten provides one analogy. Other uses include retention, promotion, tracking, placement in special education, and selection into advanced programs (Madaus, 1988; Meisels, 1989a, 1989b; National Research Council, 1999a).

High-stakes testing is closely tied to the notion of accountability, and then that poor scores on such examinations will result in negative sanctions of one sort or another. It is widely believed that tangible rewards or punishments will provide strong incentives for schools, teachers, and children to improve their performance.

The use of assessment to back up policy decisions is much

Suggested Commendation:"six Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Acquire: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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more prevalent in the public school organization than in preschool settings. However, near early babyhood programs for poor children and children with disabilities are supported with public monies, and agencies typically seek to evaluate the effectiveness of their programs in order to justify the spending of taxpayers' dollars. The evaluation studies of Head Start and other such programs are of this genre. Equally more and more young children are cared for and educated outside the dwelling house, the pressure for accountability is likely to increment—non merely to satisfy a demand for reporting on public expenditures but as an expression of guild'due south interest in protecting its youngest and most vulnerable members.

Such uses of cess information for purposes external to the classroom, rather than ameliorate educational practice direct, place a peculiarly heavy burden both on the cess instruments and on the responsible adults. The data must exist collected in a standardized way that permits comparisons beyond schools. This means, for example, that teachers should not give help during the cess unless information technology is part of the standard assistants to do so (Shepard et al., 1998). Note how different the protocols for appropriate exam use are for this sort of testing than for cess designed to support pedagogy and instruction.

Although at that place are many attempts under way to rethink testing and cess to combine some of the statistical power and generalizability of standardized tests with the richer portrait of individual learning and development that characterizes many alternative assessments, we are a long manner from achieving that goal. Some researchers are proposing that the aggregate of classroom-based assessment be used for accountability reporting (Bridgeman et al., 1995). If the use of external standardized tests increases in the preschool environment for reasons of public policy, it is essential that they meet the highest standards of reliability and validity.

Higher up all, any tests used for policy purposes must non be mistaken for statements near the learning trajectory of the individual child or allowed to diminish the importance of the kinds of assessments that volition support learning. Likewise, standards for kid performance such every bit those articulated by Head Starting time should absolutely not have any consequences associated with

Suggested Citation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Pedagogy." National Research Quango. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: ten.17226/9745.

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them for the individual child (AERA, APA, NCME, 2000; Shepard et al., 1998).

SUMMARY

What are the roles of cess in preschool? We have described iii broad categories that constitute the major purposes of cess in early childhood settings—assessment to inform instruction, assessment for diagnostic and selection purposes, and assessment for accountability and plan evaluation. Just as there are different purposes for assessment, there are many dissimilar types of assessments, from the clinical interview to the statewide assessment used for school accountability. No single assessment will satisfy all educational needs or solve all educational problems.

Assessments must be used carefully and appropriately if they are to resolve, and non create, educational bug. This means using each assessment in the style in which it was designed and intended. To use assessment as a blunt instrument, in which one type of assessment is expected to perform the functions of others, squanders resources and places children at run a risk for school difficulties. The Commission on School Health and the Commission on Early Childhood of the American Academy of Pediatrics (1995) fabricated clear the dangers inherent in the inappropriate use of tests and assessments (p. 437):

Nosotros have written at length about the demand for a fusion of assessment and instruction in early on childhood settings. Assessment has an important role to play in revealing a kid's prior knowledge, evolution of concepts, and ways of interacting with and understanding the globe so that teachers can cull a pedagogical approach and curricular materials that will support the kid'southward further learning and development. Nosotros take described a number

Suggested Commendation:"6 Assessment in Early Childhood Education." National Research Council. 2001. Eager to Learn: Educating Our Preschoolers. Washington, DC: The National Academies Printing. doi: 10.17226/9745.

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of promising approaches to cess to support learning—the clinical interview, dynamic assessment, performance assessment.

The fact is, even so, that virtually early childhood educators are non trained in traditional testing and measurement, to say null of the newer kinds of cess. Moreover, assessment in early childhood tends to be considered external and irrelevant to the pedagogy and learning process, rather than something that can complement educational programs and, indeed, is essential to making the program work for each child. If nosotros are to use the of import findings almost homo learning from the cognitive, neurological, and developmental sciences to improve early babyhood didactics and teaching, it is important that early on childhood educators and caregivers be trained to use assessments for purposes that will advance instruction and learning (Arter, 1999; Brookhart, 1999; Jones and Chittenden, 1995; Meisels, 1999; Sheingold et al., 1995; Stiggins, 1991, 1999).

Finally, we have emphasized the importance of using assessments and tests particularly carefully with immature children. The commencement five years of man life are a fourth dimension of incredible growth and learning. The rapid growth of the encephalon in the early years provides an opportunity for the environment to play an enormous role in development. Just the course of development in young children is uneven and episodic, with keen spurts in learning in ane and lags in another. As a event, assessment results tin easily be misinterpreted. Standardized tests are particularly vulnerable to misuse with this population, simply whatever assessment procedures must exist used intelligently and with care. The developmental characteristics of young children make information technology even more important that teachers and caregivers be trained to think about and employ assessment well.

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Source: https://www.nap.edu/read/9745/chapter/8

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